Flexible Converter for Electric Vehicle Charging Station Using Renewable Energy Efficiently

This article presents the research content of a solution for DC/AC, DC/DC, and isolated AC/DC converters using three-winding pulse transformers to work flexibly with coils that can be primary and secondary. The ratio between the pairs of coils is calculated differently to suit the output voltage requirements for battery charging for EVs and AC microgrid loads with different voltage levels and frequencies. The number of turns of the coil connected to the EV charging station will be 10 times larger than the coils at other outlets, and the coil operates in either primary or secondary mode in the transformer. In this pulse transformer, components such as renewable energy sources of solar panels (PV) DC voltage output, distributed sources, loads, and storage systems in the AC microgrid capable of bidirectional conversion and connecting to the main grid are connected. The main load is the batteries of electric vehicles (EV) supplied with energy in DC from PV sources and from the AC microgrid at the same time or in each case from different energy sources. The converter performs stable and flexible scenario operation to help the EV charging system use renewable energy efficiently, increase the continuous supply of electricity to the AC microgrid load, help save electricity, and stabilize the power system. Simulation results using Orcad software describe the values of current, voltage can reach 1000 VDC for the EV charging station, average conversion power of nearly 10 kW, and the average efficiency achieved by the converter of nearly 96% compared with reference documents and experiments to draw initial conclusions for the research project.

DC/DC Converter; DC/AC Converter; Electric car batteries; Inverter; Pulse transformer

Ahmad, F & Bilal, M 2023, ‘A comprehensive analysis of electric vehicle charging infrastructure, standards, policies, aggregators and challenges for the Indian market’,  Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 8601–8622, https://doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2023.2228734

Ajiwiguna, TA & Kirom, MR 2024, ‘Uninterrupted electricity supply using off-grid solar PV systems for remote areas’, International Journal of Technology, vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 1561–1572, https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v15i5.6089

Al Sakka, M, Van Mierlo, J & Gualous, H 2011, ‘DC/DC converters for electric vehicles’, In: Electric vehicles—Modelling and simulation, chapter 13, pp. 310–330, https://doi.org/10.5772/17048 

Al-Ogaili, AS, Aris, I, Sabry, AH, Othman, ML, Azis, N, Isa, D & Hoon, Y 2017, ‘Design and development of three-levels universal electric-vehicle charger based on integration of VOC and SPWM techniques’, Journal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience, vol. 14, pp. 4674–4685, https://doi.org/10.1166/jctn.2017.6881 

Aravindan, KL, Izzat, MA, Ramayah, T, Chen, TS, Choong, YV, Annamalah, S, Ilhavenil, N & Ahmad, AB 2023, ‘Determinants of electric car patronage intention’, International Journal of Technology, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1393–1401, https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v14i6.6624

Balagopal, B, Huang, CS & Chow, M 2017, ‘Effect of calendar aging on Li-ion battery degradation and SOH’, In: 43rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society (IECON 2017), pp. 7647–7652, https://doi.org/10.1109/IECON.2017.8217340 

Bradley, TH & Frank, AA 2009, ‘Design, demonstrations and sustainability impact assessments for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 115–128, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2007.05.003

Bukhariv, SMAS, Maqsood, J, Baig, MQ, Ashraf, S & Khan, TA 2015, ‘Comparison of characteristics—lead acid, nickel based, lead crystal and lithium based batteries’, In: 2015 17th UKSim-AMSS International Conference on Modelling and Simulation (UKSim), Cambridge, UK, pp. 444–450, https://doi.org/10.1109/UKSim.2015.69 

Busch, P, Pares, F, Chandra, M, Kendall, A & Tal, G 2024, ‘Future of global electric vehicle supply chain: Exploring the impact of global trade on electric vehicle production and battery requirements’, Transportation Research Record, vol. 2678, no. 11, pp. 1468-1482, https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981241244797

Chakraborty, S, Vu, H-N, Hasan, MM, Tran, D-D, Baghdadi, ME & Hegazy, O 2019, ‘DC-DC converter topologies for electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and fast charging stations: State of the art and future trends’, Energies, vol. 12, no. 8, article 1569, https://doi.org/10.3390/en12081569

Dutta, B, Jaiswal, S, Phatarpekar, V, Tayal, VK & Singh, HP 2022, ‘Design and implementation of a 3-level battery management system (BMS) for an electric vehicle’, In: SK Natarajan, R Prakash & K Sankaranarayanasamy (eds), Recent advances in manufacturing, automation, design and energy technologies, Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, Springer, Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4222-7_85

Fontaras, G, Zacharof, NG & Ciuffo, B 2017, ‘Fuel consumption and CO? emissions from passenger cars in Europe—laboratory versus real-world emissions’, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, vol. 60, pp. 97–131, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2016.12.004 

Government of Vietnam 2018, Decision No. 519/Q?-TTg (11 May 2018) approving the investment policy of the project “Application of smart grid to develop renewable energy sources and efficient energy use (SGRE-EE)”

Government of Vietnam 2022, Decision No. 876/Q?-TTg (22 July 2022) approving the action program on green energy conversion, carbon and methane emission reduction of the transport sector

Hadley, SW & Tsvetkova, AA 2009, ‘Potential impacts of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles on regional power generation’, The Electricity Journal, vol. 22, pp. 56–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2009.10.011 

Hegazy, O, Barrero, R, Van Mierlo, J, Lataire, P, Omar, N & Coosemans, T 2013, ‘An advanced power electronics interface for electric vehicles applications’, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 28, pp. 5508–5521, https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2013.2256469 

Huangfu, Y, Ma, R, Zhao, B, Liang, Z, Ma, Y, Wang, A, Zhao, D, Li, H & Ma, R 2021, ‘A novel robust smooth control of input-parallel output-series quasi-Z-source DC-DC converter for fuel cell electrical vehicle applications’, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 4207–4221, https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2021.3073643

Ikeya, T, Sawada, N, Murakami, JI, Kobayashi, K, Hattori, M, Murotani, N, Ujiie, S, Kajiyama, K, Nasu, H, Narisoko, H, Tomaki, Y, Adachi, K, Mita, Y & Ishihara, K 2002, ‘Multi-step constant-current charging method for an electric vehicle nickel/metal hydride battery with high energy efficiency and long cycle life’, Journal of Power Sources, vol. 105, pp. 6-12, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7753(01)00907-7

Islam, MR, Shah, MR & Ali, MH 2021, Emerging power converters for renewable energy and electric vehicles: Modeling, design, and control, 1st edn, CRC Press, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003058472

Jamahori, HF, Abdullah, MP, Ali, A & AlKassem, A 2024, ‘Optimal design and performance analysis of multiple photovoltaic with grid-connected commercial load’, International Journal of Technology, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 834–846, https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v15i4.6019

Jayakumar, A, Chalmers, A & Lie, TT 2017, ‘Review of prospects for adoption of fuel cell electric vehicles in New Zealand’, IET Electrical Systems in Transportation, vol. 7, pp. 259–266, https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-est.2016.0078

Jones, B, Nguyen-Tien, V & Elliott, RJR 2023, ‘The electric vehicle revolution: Critical material supply chains, trade and development’, The World Economy, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 2-16, https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.13345

Khan, F, Ali, Y & Khan, AU 2020, ‘Sustainable hybrid electric vehicle selection in the context of a developing country’, Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health, vol. 13, pp. 489–499, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00812-y

Kopacz, R, Menzi, D, Krismer, F, R?bkowski, J, Kolar, JW & Huber, J 2024, ‘New single-stage bidirectional three-phase AC-DC solid-state transformer’, Electronics Letters, vol. 60, no. 2, article e13084, https://doi.org/10.1049/ell2.13084

Linh, NH, Viet, TH, Sørensen, RM, Venturini, G, Petrovi?, S, Jaenicke, TL & Nielsen, DBV 2024, Viet Nam energy outlook report: Pathways to net-zero, EREA & DEA

Liu, K, Li, K, Peng, Q & Zhang, C. 2019, ‘A brief review on key technologies in the battery management system of electric vehicles’, Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 14, pp. 47–64, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11465-018-0516-8

Musavi, F, Cracium, M, Gautam, DS & Eberle, W 2014, ‘Control strategies for wide output voltage range LLC resonant DC-DC converters in battery chargers’, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 1117–1125, https://doi.org/10.1109/TVT.2013.2283158 

Narasipuram, RP & Mopidevi, S 2023, ‘A novel hybrid control strategy and dynamic performance enhancement of a 3.3 kW GaN-HEMT-based iL2C resonant full-bridge DC-DC power converter methodology for electric vehicle charging systems’, Energies, vol. 16, no. 15, article 5811, https://doi.org/10.3390/en16155811

Nurulin, YR, Skvortsova, IV & Konovalova, OA 2023, ‘Innovation management models in the energy sector’, International Journal of Technology, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 1759–1768, https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v14i8.6846

Onibonoje, MO, Alegbeleye, OO & Ojo, AO 2023, ‘Control design and management of a distributed energy resources system’, International Journal of Technology, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 236–245, https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v14i2.5884

Rangarajan, S, Sunddararaj, SP, Sudhakar, AV, Shiva, CK, Subramaniam, U, Collins, ER & Senjyu, T 2022, ‘Lithium-ion batteries—the crux of electric vehicles with opportunities and challenges’, Clean Technologies, vol. 4, pp. 908–930, https://doi.org/10.3390/cleantechnol4040056

Spingler, F, Wittmann, W, Sturm, J, Rieger, B & Jossen, A 2018, ‘Optimum fast charging of lithium-ion pouch cells based on local volume expansion criteria’, Journal of Power Sources, vol. 393, pp. 152–160, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.04.095

Thang, PN, Vinh, VT & Vinh, NT 2020, ‘A flexible DC-DC converter for the battery-DC bus renewable energy system’, International Energy Journal, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 581–594

Thomas, CE 2009, ‘Fuel cell and battery electric vehicles compared’, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 34, pp. 6005–6020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.06.003

Vinh, NT & Dung, NV 2025, ‘Bidirectional AC/AC converter linking two microgrids in a flexible microgrid’, International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive System, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 389–406, https://doi.org/10.11591/ijpeds.v16.i1.pp389-406

Vinh, NT 2023, ‘Bidirectional converter connecting the energy storage system to the DC and AC grid’, International Energy Journal, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 141–154

Vinh, VT, Vinh, NT & Dai, LV 2022, ‘Partly-isolated DC-DC converter for DC bus battery-PV solar energy system’, GMSARN International Journal, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 267–272

Wood, DL, Quass, JD, Li, J, Ahmed, S, Ventola, D & Daniel, C 2018, ‘Technical and economic analysis of solvent-based lithium-ion electrode drying with water and NMP’, Drying Technology, vol. 36, pp. 234–244, https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2017.1319855

Yamamoto, O 2014, ‘The lithium-air battery: Fundamentals’, In: N Imanishi, AC Luntz & P Bruce (eds), Springer, New York, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-8062-5 

Young, K, Wang, C, Wang, LY & Strunz, K 2013, ‘Electric vehicle battery technologies’, in R García-Valle & JAP Lopes (eds), Electric vehicle integration into modern power networks, Springer, New York, chapter 2, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0134-6_2